Irrationality, populism and polarization: Crisis of democracy?
Main Article Content
Abstract
Democracy is going through uncertain times. This diagnosis—widespread in academic and political circles—specifies three leading causes: the irrationality of some actors, populism, and polarization. These causes are assumed to have direct and purely negative effects. This article aims to show that these concepts are complex and sometimes imprecise. Irrationality cannot be imputed unambiguously, and it is difficult to delimit a unidirectional link between the three concepts and democracy. Although their adverse effects cannot be ignored, their interaction with
democracy comprises variations and nuances. After analyzing each concept, we briefly consider their joint and contrasting effects on democracy.
Downloads
Article Details

Revista Mexicana de Sociología por Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México se distribuye bajo una Licencia Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial-SinDerivar 4.0 Internacional.
Basada en una obra en http://revistamexicanadesociologia.unam.mx/index.php/rms/.
References
Abts, Koen, y Stefan Rummens (2007). “Populism versus democracy”. Political Studies 55 (2): 405-424.
Aragón Reyes, Manuel (2009). Estudios de derecho constitucional. Madrid: Centro de Estudios Políticos y Constitucionales.
Arditi, Benjamin (2004). “Populism as a specter of democracy: A response to Canovan”. Political Studies 52 (1): 135-143.
Argenton, Carlo, y Enzo Rossi (2013). “Pluralism, preferences, and deliberation: A critique of Sen’s constructive argument for democracy”. Journal of Social Philosophy 44 (2).
Berman, Sheri, y Hands Kundnani (2021). “Mainstream parties in crisis: The costs of convergen-ce”. Journal of Democracy 32 (1): 22-36.
Betz, Hans-George (2017). “The new politics of resentment: Radical right-wing populist parties in Western Europe”. En The Populist Radical Right: A Reader, coordinado por Cas Mudde, 338-351. Londres: Routledge.
Billingham, Paul (2017). “Convergence liberalism and the problem of disagreement concerning public justification”. Canadian Journal of Philosophy 47 (4): 541-465.
Billingham, Paul, y Anthony Taylor (2020). “A framework for analyzing public reason theories”. European Journal of Political Theory 0 (0): 1-21.
Bickerton, Christopher, y Carlo Invernizzi (2022). “Populism y technocracy: Opposites or com-plements?” Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy 20 (2): 186-206. Disponible en https://doi.org/10.1080/13698230.2014.995504.
Broockman, David, Joshua L. Kalla y Sean J. Westwood (2023). “Does affective polarization un-dermine democratic norms or accountability? Maybe not”. American Journal of Political Scien-ce 67 (3): 808-828.
Caiani, Manuela, y Paolo Graziano (2019). “Understanding the varieties of populism in times of crises”. West European Politics 42 (6): 1141-1158. Disponible en https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2019.1598062.
Canovan, Margaret (1999). “Trust the people. Populism and the two faces of democracy”. Political Studies 47 (1): 2-16.
Cordero García, Grecia (2023). “Populismo y neoliberalismo como izquierda y derecha ideológicas en el siglo XXI”. Revista Mexicana de Sociología, número especial, Populismo y democracia, agosto: 141-168.
D’Eramo, Marco (2013). “Populism and the new oligarchy”. New Left Review 82: 5-28.
Ferrara, Alessandro (2018). “Can political liberalism help us rescue ʽthe peopleʼ from populism?” Philosophy y Social Criticism 44 (4): 463-477.
Fiorina, Morris, y Samuel Abrams (2008). “Political polarization in the American public”. Annual Review of Political Science 11: 563-588.
Gaus, Gerald (2011). The Order of Public Reason: A Theory of Freedom and Morality in a Diverse and Bounded World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gilens, Martin, y Benjamin Page (2014). “Testing theories of American politics: Elites, interest groups, and average citizens”. Perspective on Politics 12 (3): 564-581.
Hawkins, Kirk, y Cristóbal Kaltawasser (2017). “What the (ideational) study of populism can teach us, and what it can’t”. Swiss Political Science Review 23 (4): 526-542.
Hetherington, Mark, y Jonathan Weiler (2018). Prius or Pickup? How the Answers to Four Simple Questions explain America’s Great Divide. Nueva York: HarperCollins.
Iyengar, Shanto, y Sean J. Westwood (2015). “Fear and loathing across party lines: New eviden-ce on group polarization”. American Journal of Political Science 59 (3): 690-707. Disponible en http://www.jstor.org/stable/24583091.
Iyengar, Shanto, Gaurav Sood y Yphtach Lelkes (2012). “Affect, not ideology: A social identity perspective on polarization”. Public Opinion Quarterly 76 (3): 405-431. Disponible en https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfs038.
Kahan, Dan (2012). “Why we are poles apart on climate change”. Nature 488 (255). Disponible en https://doi.org/10.1038/488255a.
Laclau, Ernesto (2005). La razón populista. Buenos Aires: Fondo de Cultura Económica.
Larmore, Charles (2015). “Political liberalism: Its motivations and goals”. En Oxford Studies in Political Philosophy, coordinado por David Sobel, Peter Vallentyne y Steven Wall, 63-88. Ox-ford: Oxford University Press.
Levendusky, Matthew S. (2009). The Partisan Sort: How Liberals became Democrats and Con-servatives became Republicans. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
LeBas, Adrienne (2018). “Can polarization be positive? Conflict and institutional development in Africa”. American Behavioral Scientist 62 (1): 59-74.
Lister, Andrew (2013). Public Reason and Political Community. Londres: Bloomsbury Academic.
Luhmann, Niklas (2002). El derecho de la sociedad. México: Universidad Iberoamericana.
Lupu, Noam (2016). Party Brands in Crisis: Partisanship, Brand Dilution, and the Breakdown of Party Systems in Latin America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mair, Peter (2013). Ruling the Void: The Hollowing of Western Democracy. Londres: Verso.
Mason, Liliana (2018). Uncivil Agreement: How Politics Became Our Identity. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Mason, Liliana, y Leslie McCall (2019). “The political geography of tweets in the 2016 election: The expression of affective polarization in campaign communication”. Public Opinion Quarterly 83 (4): 714-728.
McCoy, Jennifer, Tahmina Rahman y Murat Somer (2018). “Polarization and the global crisis of democracy: Common patterns, dynamics, and pernicious consequences for democratic poli-tics”. American Behavioral Scientist 62 (1): 16-42.
Mouffe, Chantal (2016). “The populist moment” [en línea]. Disponible en https:// www.opendemocracy.net/democraciaabierta/chantal-mouffe/populist-challenge.
Mounk, Yascha (2018). The People vs. Democracy: Why Our Freedom is in Danger and How to Save It. Harvard: Harvard University Press.
Mudde, Cas (2010). “The populist radical right: A pathological normalcy”. West European Politics 33 (6).
Mudde, Cas, y Cristóbal Kaltwasser (2017). Populism. A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Mudde Cas, y Cristóbal Kaltwasser (2018). “Studying populism in comparative perspective. Reflections on the contemporary and future research agenda”. Comparative Political Studies 51 (13): 1667-1693.
Müller, Jan-Werner (2017). What is Populism? Londres: Penguin.
Ostrom, Elinor (2011). “Background on the institutional analysis and development framework”. The Policy Studies Journal 39 (1): 7-21.
Panizza, Francisco (2009). “New lefts and democracy in Latin America”. Revista CIDOB d’Afers Internacionals 85-86.
Quong, Jonathan (2011). Liberalism without Perfection. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rawls, John (2005). Political Liberalism. Nueva York: Columbia University Press.
Rawls, John, y Erin Kelly (coords.) (2002). “Preface”. En Justice as Fairness: A Restatement. Harvard: Harvard University Press.
Revista Mexicana de Sociología (2023). Número especial: Populismo y democracia. Agosto.
Reid, Andrew (2020). “How can political liberalism respond to contemporary populism?” European Journal of Political Theory 0 (0): 1-22.
Roberts, Kenneth (2021). “Populism and polarization in comparative perspective: Constitutive, spatial and institutional dimensions”. Government and Opposition 57: 680-702.
Salmorán, Guadalupe (2021). Populismo. Historia y geografía de un concepto. México: Universi-dad Nacional Autónoma de México-Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas.
Sartori, Giovanni (1976). Parties and Party Systems: A Framework for Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Schedler, Andreas (2023). “Rethinking political polarization”. Political Science Quarterly 00 (0): 1-25. Disponible en https://doi.org/10.1093/psquar/qqad038.
Somer, Murat, y Jennifer McCoy (2019). “Transformations through polarizations and global threats to democracy”. The Annals of the American Academy 681. Disponible en DOI: 10.1177/0002716218818058.
Spruyt, Bram, Gil Keppens y Filip van Droogenbroeck (2016). “Who supports populism and what attracts people to it?” Political Research Quarterly 69 (2): 335-346.
Stavrakakis, Yannis (2018). “Paradoxes of polarization: Democracy’s inherent division and the (anti-)populist challenge”. American Behavioral Scientist 62 (1): 43-58. Disponible en https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764218756924.
Stokes, Donald E. (1963). “Spatial models of party competition”. American Political Science Re-view 57 (2): 368-377. Disponible en https://doi.org/10.2307/1952828.
Taggart, Paul (2002). Il populismo, Troina: Città Aperta.
Torre, Carlos de la (2003). “Masas, pueblo y democracia: un balance crítico de los debates sobre el nuevo populismo”. Revista de Ciencia Política XXIII (1).
Tucker, Joshua, et al. (2018). Social Media, Political Polarization, and Political Disinformation: A Review of the Scientific Literature. Nueva York: Rand Corporation.
Urbinati, Nadia (2023). “Teoría política del populismo”. Revista Mexicana de Sociología, número especial, agosto: 197-225.
Uslaner, Eric M. (2002). The Moral Foundations of Trust. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Vallier, Kevin (2011). “Consensus and convergence in public reason”. Public Affairs Quarterly 25 (4): 261-279.
Wall, Steven (2002). “Is public justification self-defeating?” American Philosophical Quarterly 39 (4): 385-394.
Weyland, Kurt (2013). “Latin America’s authoritarian drift: The threat from the populist left”. Jour-nal of Democracy 24 (1): 18-32.
Zanatta, Loris (1999). “Populismo, uno stile politico per l’America Latina”. Il Mulino 3.
Zanatta, Loris (2001). “Il populismo. Sul nucleo forte di un’ideologia debole”. Polis XVI (2).
Zanatta, Loris (2002). “Io, il popolo. Note sulla ʽleadershipʼ carismatica nel populismo latinoameri-cano”. Ricerche di Storia Politica 3.
Zanatta, Loris (2004). “Il populismo in America Latina. Il volto moderno di un immaginario antico”. Filosofia Politica XVIII (3).